Basic
There are three levels of politeness, plain(普通形), polite (丁寧形), and formal (敬語 keigo). Formal and polite can be combined. For example, for the sentence "This is a book",
| plain | plain formal | polite | polite formal | very polite formal |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| これは本だ kore wa hon da. | これは本である kore wa hon dearu. | これは本です kore wa hon desu. | これは本であります kore wa hon de arimasu. | これは本でございます kore wa hon de gozaimasu. |
For the difference between the form desu-masu vs da-dearu, check this post.
The Japanese language has a system of honorific speech, referred to as keigo (Japanese: 敬語, literally "respectful language"), parts of speech that show respect. Their use is mandatory in many social situations. Honorifics in Japanese may be used to emphasize social distance or disparity in rank, or to emphasize social intimacy or similarity in rank. Japanese honorific titles, often simply called honorifics, consist of suffixes and prefixes when referring to others in a conversation.
The system is very extensive, having its own special vocabulary and grammatical forms to express various levels of respectful, humble, and polite speech.
Types of honorifics
Honorifics in Japanese, or keigo (敬語), fall under three main categories: polite language (丁寧語, teineigo); respectful language (尊敬語, sonkeigo); and humble language (謙譲語, kenjōgo, or "modest language").
Polite language
Polite language (丁寧語, teineigo) is characterized by the use of the sentence ending "desu" and the verb ending "-masu" and the use of prefixes such as "o-" and "go-" towards neutral objects. Television presenters invariably use polite language, and it is the form of the language first taught to most non-native learners of Japanese.
Polite language can be used to refer to one's own actions or those of other people.
Respectful language
Respectful language (尊敬語, sonkeigo) is a special form or alternative word used when talking about superiors and customers. It is not used to talk about oneself. For example, when a Japanese hairdresser or dentist requests their client to take a seat, they say o kake ni natte kudasai to mean "please sit down". However, they would use the verb suwaru 座る rather than o kake ni naru to refer to themselves sitting down. The respectful version of language can only be used to refer to others.
In general, respectful language is directed at those in positions of power; for example, a superior at work, or a customer. It also implies that the speaker is acting in a professional capacity.
It is characterized by lengthy polite expressions. Common verbs may be replaced by more polite alternative verbs, for example suru (do) by nasaru, or hanasu (talk) by ossharu when the subject is a person of respect. Some of these transformations are many-to-one: iku (go), kuru (come), and iru (be) all become irassharu, and taberu (eat) and nomu (drink) both become meshiagaru.
Verbs may also be changed to respectful forms. One respectful form is a modification of the verb with a prefix and a polite suffix. For example, yomu (read) becomes o-yomi ni naru, with the prefix o- added to the i-form of the verb, and the verb ending ni naru. The verb ending -(r)areru can also be used, such as yomareru.
Nouns also undergo substitution to express respect. The normal Japanese word for person hito (人) becomes kata (方) in respectful language. Thus, a customer would normally be expected to be referred to as a kata rather than a hito.
Humble language
In general, humble language is used when describing one's actions or the actions of a person in one's in-group to others such as customers in business. Humble language tends to imply that one's actions are taking place in order to assist the other person.
Humble language (謙譲語, kenjōgo) is similar to respectful language, in substituting verbs with other forms. For example: suru (do) becomes itasu, and morau (receive) becomes itadaku. These two verbs are also seen in set phrases such as dō itashimashite (you're welcome) and itadakimasu (いただきます—a phrase said before eating or drinking).
Similar to respectful language, verbs can also change their form by adding a prefix and the verb "suru" or "itasu". For example, motsu (carry) becomes o mochi shimasu. The use of humble forms may imply doing something for the other person; thus a Japanese person might offer to carry something for someone else by saying o mochi shimasu. This type of humble form also appears in the set phrase o matase shimashita, "I am sorry to have kept you waiting", from mataseru (make wait) with the addition of o and shimasu. Similarly, o negai shimasu, "please [do this]", from negau (request or hope for), again with the addition of o and shimasu.
Even more politely, the form motasete itadaku literally means "humbly be allowed to carry". This phrase would be used to express the idea that "I will carry it if you please."
In humble language, name suffixes are dropped when referring to people from inside one's group. Thus, Japanese-speaking company executives would introduce themselves and their team by saying "I am Gushiken, the president, and this is Niwa, the CEO."
Similarly to respectful language, nouns can also change. The word hito (人), meaning "person", becomes mono (者). The humble version is used when referring to oneself or members of one's group, such as one's company.
Uchi–soto
Uchi–soto is the distinction between in-groups (内, uchi, "inside") and out-groups (外, soto, "outside"). This distinction between groups is a fundamental part of Japanese social custom and sociolinguistics and is even directly reflected in the Japanese language itself.
The basic concept revolves around dividing people into in-groups and out-groups. When speaking with someone from an out-group, the out-group must be honored, and the in-group humbled. That is achieved with special features of the Japanese language, which conjugates verbs based on both tense and politeness. It may also include social concepts such as gift giving or serving. The uchi–soto relationship can lead to someone making great personal sacrifices to honor a visitor or other person in an out-group.
One of the complexities of the uchi–soto relationship lies in the fact that groups are not static; they may overlap and change over time and according to situation.
Uchi–soto groups may be conceptualized as a series of overlapping circles. One's position within the group and relative to other groups depends on the context, situation, and time of life. For example, a person usually has a family, a job, and other groups or organizations to which they belong. Their position within the various groups and in relation to other groups changes according to circumstances at a given moment.
Japanese honorific language ("keigo") is divided into three forms: polite, humble and respectful. Within these forms are specific words and prefixes.
For example, the verb "to eat" may be given as follows:
- taberu (plain: "I/we/you/they eat" or "he/she/it eats")
- itadaku (humble, literally "to receive", used to refer to oneself or one's in-group)
- meshiagaru (respectful, used to refer to one's superior)